Thomas Braile

Banwa. 2006. 3(1&2):162-168. Braile and Winker. 2006. Banwa 3(1&2):162-168.
Integrated Specimen-Based Studies of
Philippine Birds and Avian Influenza:
Applications in Conservation, Taxonomy,
Wildlife Enforcement, and Disease
Thomas Braile1 and Kevin Winker2
1 Corresponding author. University of Alaska Museum, 907 Yukon Drive, Fairbanks,
Alaska 99775, USA. fttmb@uaf.edu.
2 University of Alaska Museum, 907 Yukon Drive, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA.
Abstract
Conservation is practiced in many ways, but often overlooked
is the role of specimens in conservation biological research. With
increasingly powerful phylogenetic analyses necessary to describe
dwindling genetic diversity, the preservation of biodiversity can only
be as successful as the infrastructure of specimens available. Taxonomic
units of biodiversity may not completely reflect true genetic diversity,
so new phylogenetic tools useful for the recognition of biodiversity
require specimen-based resources to be as complete as possible. Here,
we discuss how specimen-based, integrated research has multiple
goals, and how conservation biology remains a key focus and outcome
of these studies. Our sample archiving methods are among the most
comprehensive in the discipline, and critical for quality research in
conservation, phylogenetics, taxonomy, wildlife enforcement, and
avian influenza studies. Although we have not isolated any avian
influenza from Philippine samples, we have learned much from these
negative results about avian influenza in the Philippines, and our
methodology is producing quality multidisciplinary science.
Keywords: avian influenza, bird specimens, conservation, taxonomy,
wildlife enforcement.
Introduction :
There are many ways in which conservation is practiced – habitat
preservation, wildlife management, contaminant control and
environmental cleanup, restoration, and breeding programs, just to
name a few. All of these efforts are important and certainly make
a contribution to conservation. Often overlooked is the role of
specimen-based research and its application in conservation biology.
Few recognize this important role, yet with increasingly powerful
phylogenetic analyses that are routinely necessary to describe and
quantify dwindling genetic diversity, preservation of biodiversity
can only be as successful as the infrastructure of specimens available
for such research. Further elucidating the very units of biodiversity
that we need to protect is a dynamic field in ornithology today, with
much cryptic diversity being discovered.
With limited resources for preservation, it is dangerous to rely
on old models and taxonomic units of biodiversity that may not
completely reflect true genetic diversity. For example, widely
distributed “superspecies” may undergo range restrictions that can
essentially be described as extinction events of cryptic species that
have never been recognized. Many widely distributed Asian taxa
may follow this pattern. In this way, it would be a grave mistake
to claim that all the important archiving of specimens has already
occurred, when new phylogentic tools useful for recognition of
biodiversity require specimen-based resources to be as complete as
possible. This is not the only role that specimens play in conservation
biology, but we can be assured that specimen-based research,
combined with integrated phylogentics, can maximize the benefits
for science and conservation.
Here, we discuss how we use specimen-based, integrated
research for multiple goals, and how conservation biology remains
a key focus and outcome of these studies. These specimens are not
only essential to current multidisciplinary studies, but also possess
potentially unlimited opportunities for future studies.
Materials and Methods
Our sample archiving methods are among the most comprehensive
in the discipline (see Winker, 2000). We routinely preserve skin,
skeleton, tissue, and stomach samples from birds. In regards to our
influenza screening, there are two compelling reasons for using a
sample archiving approach. The first is that such an approach is the
only practical means of collecting the full suite of data needed to
resolve detailed questions about the avian virus transport system.
The second is that sample archives of wild animal tissues are an
invaluable resource for tracing the origins, distribution, and
transport of emergent zoonotic pathogens. A full understanding of
these zoonoses requires retrospective analyses. There are now many
powerful techniques for such studies, but retrospective research can
only be as good as the archived samples from which to draw. Avian
influenza (AI), replicated in the gut, is not likely to be present in
traditionally archived animal tissues, however. As a consequence,
we’ve added intestinal tissue samples to our sampling and archiving
program.
Standardized morphological measurements are made, and sex,
age class (hatching-year/after-hatching year), and the size and
condition of the gonads are recorded. The cloaca is swabbed to collect
any potential live influenza virus, and we also preserve intestine
samples and ca. 6 g of muscle tissue from birds collected. Cloacal
swabs are placed in cryovials containing viral medium. Tissues and
cloacal swabs from all of the specimens we collect are stored on
liquid nitrogen in the field the same day they are collected. Voucher
specimens are prepared as study skins, skeletons, and often spread
wings and deposited and catalouged at the University of Alaska
Museum and the National Museum of the Philippines. Cloacal
swabs are shipped frozen to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s
Southeast Poultry Research Lab in Athens, Georgia, for real-time
reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) influenza screening and genome
sequencing (Spackman et al., 2002).
Our research is providing basic information about viral infection
rates, host specificity, genomics of viral genetic reassortments
(from regions where we have obtained positive samples), and the
population genetics of the bird vectors. Outside of game species, we
know more of non-breeding avian movements through comparative
study of research skins than by any other methods, including bird
banding. Additionally, data such as age, sex, condition, reproductive
status, parasite loads, and diet are all useful means of determining
individual susceptibility to infection and transmission. Dissection
and specimen archiving enable full capture and use of the above data
- in addition to making these materials available in perpetuity for a
suite of other scientific studies. It is in this way that our approach
to specimen-based research maximizes the scientific benefit of each
specimen.
Results
We have not yet isolated any AI viruses from the Philippines,
and this is good news from national and international perspectives.
This project continues to document some of the baseline rates of AI
infection in wild birds in the Philippines, and this should help us
learn more of the potential origin and transport of this emerging
health and economic crisis. An example of how study of these
transport systems can illuminate risk levels was presented by Winker
et al. (2007) for our avian influenza research in Alaska. Continuation
of this screening in the Philippines is of paramount importance in
monitoring the presence of viruses known to be in the region and
thereby providing scientists and policy-makers the best possible
information. Conversely, lack of knowledge in this emerging crisis
could lead to costly and detrimental actions.
Twenty-eight new distributional and seasonal records for
localities have been established based on our 2001-2003 work.
Phenotypic and genotypic analyses have yielded new information
about migratory bird routes. In one long-distance migrant species
(Limosa lapponica baueri), we have genetically linked a Philippine
bird to host populations in Siberia and not to breeding Alaska
populations (unpublished data), demonstrating the effectiveness
of such research and providing new evidence on migratory routes.
Phenotypic analyses have provided multiple new migratory
path developments. One discovery provides the possibility that
Philippine birds are not only linked to the Asian/Alaskan migration
but to the European/Asian migration route as well (unpublished
data).
For example, in terms of phenotypic analyses, the following species
have been identified to subspecies and the implications of migratory
routes are described. We were able to identify a Philippine Kentish
Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus dealbatus) Plover to this subspecies.
Thomas Braile? was also able to collect several individuals of this
species in Mongolia (2002), and this makes an interesting discovery.
The Philippine specimen is the same subspecies as a specimen
collected in Mongolia but differs from other Mongolian Kentish
Plovers of the nominate race which breeds substantially west of C.
a. dealbatus. This discovery provides the possibility that Philippine
birds are not only linked to the Asia/Alaska migration but also to
European/Asian migration through contact of Philippine Kentish
Plovers with the nominate race. Philippine-collected Ruddy
Turnstones (Arenaria interpres interpres) have been identified to the
nominate race that differ from breeding Alaska Ruddy Turnstones,
indicating that these birds have a Palearctic origin and may not
be mixing with Alaska birds. Further analysis will be necessary to
determine whether some of the nominate subspecies occur in the
Aleutian Islands in migration. Phenotypic analysis of a Philippine collected
Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica baueri) indicates that
it is of the same subspecies as both Siberian and Western Alaskan
breeding Bar-tailed Godwits. We hope that genetic analyses of
these birds will provide finer resolution in the identification of host
populations. Philippine Whimbrels (Numenius phaeopus variegates), is
the same subspecies that we have identified in the Aleutian Islands.
While differing from breeding Alaska Whimbrels, Philippine
Whimbrels may be a regular component of the Aleutian migration.
A Philippine Little Egret (Ergretta garzetta nigripes) specimen has
been identified as a subspecies endemic to the Philippines, Sunda
Archipelago, and New Guinea. A Philippine specimen of Anthus
gustavi gustavi has been identified as similar? to the Russian and
Kamchatka breeding populations.
Finally, in terms of traditional museum studies of biodiversity,
we are finding that even common species in Southeast Asia are
likely composed of multiple cryptic species (unpublished data). In
preliminary phylogenetic analyses, we have already found at least
one such case. We are continuing our search for more, and other
cryptic species are undoubtedly present.
Discussion
Applications of our specimen-based approach can have enormous
conservation impact. Human health crises have the potential to cause
panic, and many times conservation is forgotten in efforts to protect
human health. We understand that there was a serious proposal here
in the Philippines to attempt to kill massive numbers of migratory
birds in a misguided attempt to prevent the transport of bird flu. In
this case we, together with others in the international community,
worked with the Philippine Department of Environment and
Natural Resources to help convince policy makers that this was the
wrong thing to do for both conservation and the spread of disease.
Averting this effort was a major boost for conservation of birds. In
this way, our collection of a relatively small number of birds can
better inform us about the potential risks from avian influenza and
avoid a panic that could result in extreme conservation problems.
The discovery of cryptic species will also have a major conservation
impact (Bickford et al., 2007), and the phenomenon may be
widespread among Philippine birds and elsewhere in Asia. An
example of this is the interest from conservation organizations, and
the resulting support from them and the public in their recognition
of the increased number of both endemic and total species found
in Philippine birds. Newly discovered species and heightened
attention placed on them is bound to have a profound impact for the
protection of their habitat and raise awareness for their conservation
needs. The discovery of new species will simply not occur without
specimen-based phenotypic and genotypic research.
New migratory connectivities are being discovered in this project,
and this not only helps in tracking potential influenza transport but
also in the conservation of migratory birds. Critical habitat in the form
of staging and stopover areas can be identified for specific breeding
populations, enabling improvements in population monitoring
and in analysis of factors influencing potential population declines.
Knowing when and where populations are going on a fine scale is
highly necessary in the protection of migratory birds across political
boundaries. New discoveries in both phenotypic and genotypic
analyses will certainly aid in this effort.
The gradual buildup of decent sample sizes of specimens from
across species ranges will also enable wildlife trade to be monitored
in ways previously not possible. Too often the source of illegally
traded birds cannot be traced to the host locality or population. A
base of specimens would allow for phylogenetic linking of traded
birds to the host population, and wildlife enforcement could then
concentrate on important areas for the prevention of illegal trapping
and transport.
Some conservationists are very sensitive about the collection
of birds, and we understand that. However, we must place the
collection of birds in context. An understanding of population
dynamics confirms that the relatively small numbers of birds
that are collected for science are not having impacts to their
conservation. Endangered species and other sensitive species are
not being collected. Birds collected for science can be compared to
birds being killed by human influence that does not contribute to
conservation or science. It one considers as an example, the human
support of domesticated cats, which kill millions of birds in North
America alone, a rational mind will not single out the extremely
small number of collected birds by the specimen-based researcher
(Winker, 1996). There are many other ways in which humans are
killing birds, all of us only need to look in the mirror after we drive
a car or fly a plane to the conference, or even the paper on which our
conservation reports are printed on.
It is fine to choose to pursue conservation and science in other
areas, but it is unproductive to single out the specimen-based
researcher as being “anti-conservation.” Specimen-based bird
researchers are also ardent conservation biologists. It is important
that all biologists recognize the need of specimen-based research for
science and conservation benefits. If you are really against the idea
of collecting, I suggest you use that energy to promote the salvage
of “found dead” birds. Modern collections routinely contain 50-70%
salvage birds as opposed to collected birds. If all biologists worked
harder to salvage specimens, then the need for collecting birds could
be reduced. Let us all work together as biologists to promote good
conservation biology.
Acknowledgments
Our research in the Philippines was supported by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (SCAs 58-6612-2-217 & 58-6612-6-244)
and the University of Alaska Museum.
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